Key Theories of Learning |
Posted: November 16, 2018 |
Education has become a crucial condition for achievement of success in the progressive society of the 21st century. It gives opportunities for career development and promotion. Moreover, many people have developed a persistent intrinsic need for life-long education. The Internet has provided people with mass access to information of any kind and character. All these factors have stipulated a shift in the paradigm of learning aims and goals. There are many branches in every theory, but they are all aimed at providing students with development of demanded competences and successful adaptation in the society. According to UNESCO, the most influential learning theories are behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism, social learning theory, multiple intelligence, and the 21st century learning or skills (Crone, 2011). Behaviorism Behaviorism is the learning theory based on studies of behavior. It appeared in American psychology in the early 20th century and transformed the entire system of ideas about the psyche and the process of learning. According to this theory, the subject matter of psychology is behavior, not mind. Adherents of this approach equated mind and consciousness. The founder of behaviorism was an American psychologist John Watson (Coon & Mitterer, 2008). Major categories of behaviorism are conditioning and stimulus-response mechanism. Incentive refers to any effect on the body of the environment, as well as human produces reinforcement and predictable action. One of the founders of behaviorism E. Torndayk introduced such important concepts as stimulus – response, bad box, problematic situation, law of the associative shift, and effect (reinforcement) (Coon & Mitterer, 2008). Scientists analyze actions of both animals and humans equally applying these terms. Behaviorism has come from purely mechanistic concepts of theories put forward by modern neo-behaviorists (Coon & Mitterer, 2008). Main achievement of the behaviorism is that it has made a study of human action in terms of scientific rigor and showed possibilities of control over the learning process. In the second half of the 20th century, cognitivism replaced the behaviorism. Since then, it has dominated the science of psychology and education (Greenwald & Banaji, 2005). Cognitivism Cognitive theory of learning focuses on cognitive processes of the psyche. Findings of the cognitive school relate to social psychology, personality psychology, and educational psychology (Greenwald & Banaji, 2005). The goal of cognitive learning is development of the entire set of mental abilities and strategies that make the process of learning and adaptation to new situations and conditions possible. Cognitive learning implies a set of different techniques, training methods, and dynamic systems based on the physiological psychosocial model of an individual. This training system uses both intelligent cognitive mechanisms and spiritual practices. It applies traditional verbal methods of training aimed at developing students' reflective activity. At the same time, cognitivism reveals importance of sensory-perceptual channels of different modalities, sensuous and intuitive ways of acquiring new knowledge. Application of methods of cognitive learning allows students to improve their inter-related activities, discussion, reflection, and self-control (Boden, 2006). A distinctive feature of cognitive learning consists in the leading role played by sensory-perceptual, emotional, and intuitive means of acquiring knowledge. These techniques make it possible to reveal procedural aspects of intelligence, facilitate the identification and development of latent individual abilities of students. Cognitive learning offers a set of innovative methods useful for successful adaptation in the society. Method of empathy means the ability to feel a communicant and to place oneself in the position of another object (Boden, 2006). Through sensually shaped visualizations a student tries to move in the object under study, as well as to feel and learn it from inside. Method of sensitive vision is continuation and deepening of the previous method. It requires creation of mood consisting of active sensory-cognitive mental activity. Such exercises lead to development of such students' qualities like intuition and insight. Method of symbolic perception consists in finding or constructing relations between the object and its symbolism. Constructivism Principles of constructivism imply inability to transfer knowledge to a student in a finished form. Educators can only create pedagogical conditions for successful self-construction and self-expansion of students' mind. From a more general standpoint, constructivism reflects truth throughout life. It means that everyone has personal understanding of the world. That is why, all people are unique in their vision of the world, beliefs, and worldview (Greenwald & Banaji, 2005). Constructivism is a learning theory that gives priority to the student's point of view no matter how irrelevant it may be at the moment. According to Piaget and Inhelder (1969), construction of new knowledge in a student starts from creation of a cognitive conflict between internal structure of current and unknown reality. Eliminating this conflict restores the so-called temporal stability or cognitive balance. Constructivist philosophy of learning involves creation of conditions to ensure that students themselves can change direction of discussions offered by their teaching methods and concepts (Greenwald & Banaji, 2005). The educator should be fluent in teaching material and capable of improvising because it allows deviating from a rigid structure of the lesson. In addition, the teacher listens to first-constructivist point of view of students, involving them in a meaningful discussion and only then summarizes and reveals his/her position on this issue in any way without forcing it. Students get involved in the process, try to understand and analyze their learning problems, and formulate unknown points for themselves. In other words, learners should participate fully in the design of new knowledge rather than getting it off the shelf from the teacher. Social Learning Theory From the point of view of A. Bandura (1995), students and especially children form an image of cognitive behavioral response through observation of behavior models. Coded information stored in non-volatile memory serves as a benchmark in their further actions and reactions. Bandura (1995) believed that people could learn by example. Learning through observation can have two forms. The first is a pure imitation and the second is a vicarious learning. According to the theory of Bandura (1995), learning is a result of four interrelated components: attention, retention, motor-reproductive and motivational processes (cited in L.Hellu, D.Zigleru, 1997). The first implies understanding of the model. Preservation means memorization. Motor-reproductive processes focus on persistent practice and motivational processes reflect foresight or reinforcement. Observation of the behavior can cause encouragement or prevention of undesirable conditions. Although social learning theory recognizes an important role of external reinforcements, it postulates existence of a wide range of reinforcing effects. People are not only influenced by experience acquired as a result of their actions, but also regulate behavior on the basis of expected impacts, as well as creating them for themselves. Self-promotion or self-punishment depends on personal standards. Such criteria are a comparison of one’s behavior with the behavior of other people or focus on the standard norms and values of the reference group. Students compare their current behavior with the past behavior. They realize importance of personal activities and adequacy of self-esteem (Bandura, 1995). A. Bandura paid much attention to the study of role models in the process of learning. The results showed that children tended to imitate adults first and then peers whose behavior led to success (Bandura, 1995). A. Bandura conducted numerous studies confirming importance of learning through observation of acquisition and modification of aggressive behavior. According to the ideas of Bandura, aggressiveness can be a result of learning. It develops, as well as being maintained or decreased by observing scenes of aggression and its visible effects. Laboratory studies reveal influence of TV violence on social behavior. Prolonged exposure of violence on television can lead to negative consequences such as an increase in aggressive behavior or reduction of constraints to aggression (Bandura, 1995). Humanism Main principles of humanistic learning theory reflect the value of human dignity. Realization of learning potential and self-disclosure directly depend on levels of satisfaction in accordance with the hierarchy of needs presented in the Maslow’s pyramid. People do not look for realization of their creative potential until they satisfy their basic needs (Erasmus & Luther, 2013). Principles of humanism are relevant and demanded in the modern educational paradigm. Humanism means views, ideas, and beliefs, claiming the prior value of human life. Personality is the supreme value of humanism. Harmonious development of students’ intellectual, spiritual, moral, and aesthetic potential is the aim of educators adherent to this learning theory. The ultimate goal of education is to provide every person with opportunities to become a full-fledged subject of activity, cognition, and communication. Conditions for individual self-disclosure become the measure of quality assessment. Students’ right to freedom, responsibility, and creativity determine effectiveness of the learning process (Crone, 2011). Currently, humanization of education is the most important socio-pedagogical principle that reflects modern approaches in the studies of educational theories, claiming poly subject essence of the educational process. Main purpose of learning lies in the development of the individual and activation of his or her cognitive and spiritual spheres. In the most general terms, humanistic theory of learning focuses on building of relationships and students’ collaboration on the basis of mutual tolerance, respect for each other's identity, and pluralism. In this case, essence of the educational process is to reach a meaningful transformation of social experience in personal experience (Erasmus & Luther, 2013). Humanism establishes rules of communication between participants in the educational process, a teacher and students. It presupposes the unity of cultural, social, moral, and professional development of the individual. This process gets the best character when the student is the subject of training and educational synergy. Multiple Intelligence Multiple intelligence theory reflects seven intelligences of Gardner. It defines seven intellectual abilities, which presuppose the mental and learning process. The approach includes verbal, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal intelligences (Gardner, 2011). In particular, Gardner (2011) argues that musical intelligence is more important than the logical-mathematical one. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves control over human body and the ability to skillfully manipulate objects. For example, this competence dominates in dancers, gymnasts, artisans, and neurosurgeons. Personal intelligence consists of two parts. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to keep track of one’s feelings and emotions and distinguish them. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to see and understand needs and intentions of others and monitor their mood in order to predict their future behavior (Gardner, 2011). Gardner (2011) analyzes each type from several positions: participation of cognitive operations, appearance of geeks and other exceptional individuals, data on the incidence of brain damage, and possible course of evolution. Gardner notes that adults from different cultures present different combinations of types of intelligence. Every individual has a unique combination of more or less developed intellectual abilities (Gardner, 2011), which explains individual differences between people. Analytical report topic about learning theories has shown a persistent interest in educational technologies and processes. The spectrum of learning motives has broadened and increased during the 20th century and has reached a new level at the beginning of the 21st century. Shift from a traditional to an interactive educational paradigm has proven its efficiency and potential. It corresponds with the constant increase of information and the necessity of new approaches of working with it. People have to adapt and react to the informational overload. They have to learn to operate, determine, and analyze facts. They should develop multiple intelligences and see threats of the mass media’s ideological influence. The 21st century skills have become the essence of key learning strategies in the new millennium. They have become a logical summary of the last century’s achievements in behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and all other corresponding branches of the key learning theories. Skills of the 21st century include responsibility and adaptability. Students need advanced communication ability, creativity and curiosity, as well as critical and systematic thinking. They should work with information and media sources and apply techniques of interpersonal collaboration and synergy. Modern students have to know how to pose and solve problems. They focus on self-realization, but remember about social responsibility. Digital literacy has acquired the status of the universal learning task and a revolutionary achievement of the new learning paradigm.
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